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Engineering Club High School

The electricity production systems called photovoltaic systems enable the transformation of the energy content solar radiation into electrical energy. These systems are characterized by a degree of autonomy with respect to climate, geography, and other conditions that few can achieve energy sources. Geographic locations characterized by receiving a high level of solar radiation are the most conducive to its use.

face of conventional energy, solar photovoltaic presents the characteristic of being an unlimited source of energy, renewable energy deals. Is also characterized by its "ubiquitous" and may be seized anywhere on the planet's surface (though obviously not with the same intensity in all places and at all times). This ubiquity makes possible a wide range of applications (limited only by the power required).

energy sources environmental impacts are inevitable. More and more clear these effects on the planet. Acid rain, greenhouse gases, radioactive waste, nuclear accidents ... there is greater awareness - because you know every day - with respect to these adverse effects and greater social sensitivity - which have specifically generated by the ecological movement, etc.. - Are factors that make this possible is an increasingly viable alternative and attractive compared to other energy sources. This is not a theory. A striking example is the case of the USA who has directed most of its budget for energy research projects related to photovoltaic energy. If you continue this level of RESEARCH AND the number of projects, it is clear that photovoltaics will play a key role in power generation in the United States, especially in areas capita ; Lidasan, such as Florida (which is one of the places in America where more studies on this type of energy has been made).

Brief History of photovoltaic systems The

Early research in this field focused on product development for space applications, and its first successful use in the manufacture of artificial satellites. Its main features made them ideal for supplying energy in outer space.

The cells were first marketed in 1955. But only in the early eighties, began to settle photovoltaic companies. It was also during this decade than in the U.S., the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) established methods and testing and performance standards for photovoltaic modules. These activities helped companies reduce costs and improve performance, efficiency and reliability.

How are photovoltaic converters

line photovoltaic cells and photovoltaic panels are made of silicon. This element - the second most abundant in the crust - is what allows the process of generating electricity. The energy gap estimated by the theoretical conversion efficiency voltaic materials, determines the spectral absorption characteristic of the material in the fundamental absorption region. Silicon has a cut 1.2u absorption with a strong increase in the absorption coefficient at longer wavelengths. The fundamental region is the sensitive region of the cell in Sicily.

When pure silicon doped with impurities of certain chemicals, unique electrical properties obtained in the presence of sunlight. How doped Silicon? A diode is formed - as its name indicates - in two parts: one negative and one positive. On the positive side, the electrons missing material. On the negative side, you can spare. When the two parts come together is called semiconductor diode. It semiconductor (see the theoretical definition of this concept, which is located before ...) in the sense that the electric current can flow only in one direction. Moreover, unlike conductive materials, as the temperature increases, performance increases. Silicon has four electrons. You can only get to have "a positive and a negative Silicon" if you dope with contaminants. For example, if we introduce phosphorus to its composition, we get a negative Silicon, as others would get one electron at a time (if we consider that the match has 5 electrons in the last layer) . However, if we introduce aluminum - three electrons in the last layer - we will have a positive silicon.

I said, only by doping the silicon, has the appropriate characteristics. This is because the chemical properties of elements are determined by the number of electrons in the top layer and electrons missing to complete. Sicily, as well as we said, has four electrons and four others are missing to complete. When atoms join Sicilian other, sharing the electrons of the last layers of neighboring atoms and form covalent bonds, these combinations give rise to a crystalline structure. This is the composition of photovoltaic cells. They measure between 7 and 9 inches and are thin and rectangular or circular.

Silicon is processed - after working complex - and it is formed with a cylinder lens and solid. This is a very pure semiconductor crystal. This cylinder is cut, in turn, into thin slices that are then chemically treated before they become photovoltaic cells. Then connect wires to the cell surface: A positively charged side and a negative side. This completes the electrical circuit. When the cell is exposed to light, electricity flows through the circuit. To improve efficiency and system capacity can be connected - also by wires - many cells in a series. This is called a module (module) and can also be connected, in turn, several modules. The more modules you add, the more electricity can be generated.

cells are powered by what is called "photovoltaic effect" (photo comes from light, voltaic electricity). When the sun hit the surface of the cell, free electrons from atoms of the material. Electrons, excited by light, moving through Sicily. Certain chemical elements added to the composition Silicon can set the path to follow the electrons.

photovoltaic That is the phenomenon and its consequence is the direct electrical current. This stream may be stored in "batteries" for, if desired, can be used outside daylight hours. Each cell (or cell) is able to generate 2 to 4 amps at a voltage of 0.46 to 0.48 V using as raw material only from solar radiation. In addition, support both direct and diffuse radiation, which means that electric power can be achieved even in the days cloudy. Therefore, it is quite efficient. It is also relatively simple, photovoltaic cells have no moving parts, no maintenance needed and have a lifespan of between 20 and 30 years - and yet, their construction requires sophisticated technology that is available only in some countries like USA, Germany, Spain Japanandthe. That is why, although the direct conversion of the visible solar spectrum is perhaps the most orderly way and aesthetics of all those that exist for the use of solar energy, unfortunately this technology has not been fully developed.

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Each of the last 20 years has been warmer than the long-term global average, and with the 1998 record, the 10 warmest years of the century have all occurred since 1983, seven of them in this decade.

Temperatures have risen by 1.25 degrees Fahrenheit by the end of the century, comparing with its beginning. While this increase may not seem very high, distributed across the planet is a tremendous amount of energy. It is also a huge spike in temperature. While temperatures vary greatly from site to site, day N'Diaye from hour to hour, the average temperature across the surface of the planet remains remarkably stable from year to year. When going up only a small fraction of a degree, as it has in recent years, establishing a record. That's why as the heat wave in 1998-about everything one degree F above the average of 1961 to 1990 - impresses and worries scientists. "That number is staggering," said climatologist Philip Jones of the University of East Anglia in England, one of the main climatological information centers worldwide.

The amazing record of 1998 marks a powerful long-term trend. "The rapid warming of the last 25 years undermines the argument of skeptics about the greenhouse effect, which have argued that most of the global warming occurred early in this century, when greenhouse gases were increasing more slowly-in fact, faster warming is occurring exactly when expected, "according to the director of the Goddard Institute for Space Studies at NASA, James E. Hansen.

In late 1998, the scientist Thomas Widley National Center for Atmospheric Research and two colleagues published the results of rigorous statistical tests of the last 115 years of temperature data. They compared data collected with the climate system models made by computer to determine whether a cyclical rise in the intensity of the sun, could have caused the warming global, rather than the greenhouse gases produced by humans. Concluded that the climate should have been six times more sensitive to solar changes what is considered realistic to allow the warming trend. "These results provide another important piece in the puzzle of climate change, further strengthening our confidence that there has been a discernible human influence on climate."

Milena Velba Jan 2010

Climate Change Energy Solar PV SOLAR POWER

solar energy has taken a very important level at present, more and more people and businesses are taking it into account technological developments and upgrading of its industries, reducing costs, saving energíay caring for the environment by using renewable energy.

is why it is essential to understand its principles, its operations and its practical applications. This has given rise to the solar energy courses for useful applications, such as building solar thermal water heaters, solar energy collectors and more than can help people save energy and protect the environment, reducing costs and implementing new technologies.

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The solar energy is a type of solar energy based on the application of the photovoltaic effect, which occurs when light strikes semiconductor materials, so generates a flow of electrons inside the material. Applications

of great interest to cover consumption in isolated places. Photovoltaic solar energy is used commercially for power generation at the site of application, covering small loads. Not giving foreign supplies (fuel) or other types of resources (water, wind ...), applies in places that are inaccessible to the distribution network.

Solar photovoltaics

off-grid applications grid-connected applications

· central rural electrification photoelectric

· Applications building integrated livestock farming

· ; Pumping

· Telecommunications

· independent lighting

· Signage

Operating Principles

The applications of solar PV is based on the use of photovoltaic effect, this is produced by impacting solar radiation on a material called a semiconductor. Received energy causes a chaotic motion of electrons. If two regions of a semiconductor, which has been artificially endowed with different concentrations of electrons (adding doping substances such as phosphorus and boron), it causes a constant electrostatic field be renewed the motion of electrons in the direction and desired direction, so when incident solar radiation, appears in the photovoltaic solar cell voltage, which by placing metal contacts can be "removed" electricity. The face of the cell on the incident radiation has a grid that allows the passage of light and current draw simultaneously, and the other face is covered with metal.

Most solar cells are mono or poly crystalline silicon, the former being more efficient.

Within the technical aspects should be mentioned concentration systems that will achieve higher efficiency levels. These concentrating systems can be:

· Static-free solar tracking using refractive media.

· Dynamic-tracked to allow concentrate solar radiation reflection.

A photovoltaic system consists of:

· Subsystem capture-transform sunlight into electricity.

· Storage Subsystem-store it Energía.

· -control subsystem regulates the power input from the catchment area.

· Subsystem Power-appropriate adaptation characteristics energíaa demands for applications.

solar collector subsystem

radiation values change throughout the day, so proper placement is important panels. His guidance will be provided to the south although the inclination of the panels will vary depending on the month of the year in which we are, because the sun will affect the earth with a different angle;

· 60 ° in the winter months

· 15 º in the summer months.

To improve the performance of the collection system can be fitted with movement to support the installation may be a move on:

· ; A north-south axis-tracking

· Two-axis vertical east-west track.

To take advantage of sunlight.

accumulation subsystem

The PV is customary to use batteries to store power generated for later use in times of low or no sunlight .

current adaptation Subsystems

In certain applications that work in DC can not match the voltage supplied to the elements requested by the consumer, so the solution is a voltage converter. In other cases, the application includes elements that work in AC, since both panels and batteries, work requires a DC power inverter. Applications

· facilities off-grid electrification

home. Regarding the design criteria are two types of facilities:

· Centered a single generator-powered all consumers of a group.

· Decentralized-each home is powered by a photovoltaic generator independently.

also depend on the type of power to use and benefit of the facility. Such facilities tend to be domestic, so it is advisable to remember that the energy consumed is not unlimited, and that harness this energy collection system is preferable to match the increased use of energy with more sunshine hours.

· networked facilities.

can be found two cases:

· photoelectric or power stations, for the production of energy into electricity.

· PV systems in buildings.

In these facilities, "networked" no elements of accumulation of energy produced as it can use the energy from the grid to meet the demand not covered by the photovoltaic . Advantages

use

· has a high quality energy

· is inexhaustible on a human scale

· ; Pequeñoo no environmental space use

· not add CO2 to the atmosphere and thus avoid the process of global warming as a result of greenhouse

· not contribute to the formation of acid rain

· not lead to the formation of Nox

· not require sophisticated security measures

· not produce toxic waste are difficult or impossible to treatment or disposal

Disadvantages

· The plant cost is quite high and the energy conversion efficiency is low

· The non-uniform solar radiation limits the possibility of harnessing this energíaa areas and countries with a high number of sunshine hours

· large area of land occupied by facilities

· a considerable environmental impact while significantly changes the ecosystem the production area

· can not be stored directly, requiring a transformation current Energy

policy

· high initial disbursement

· ; results is doubtful and may still be somewhat experimental.

Word World Birthday Ideas

E l is known as FOREX Market Currencies Electronic SPOT, is quoted foreign exchange trading real prices.

This means that an investor either buy (long) a currency or sell (short) another currency real price or current. The FOREX market is the largest financial market in the world. Daily, two trillion dollars are traded in different currencies around the world.

Forex Trading As the basis for international transactions and foreign capital, liquidity and volume are much greater than any other financial market in the world. It is estimated that the average trading volume for the largest stock exchange in the world that is New Bag York, a full month is equal to the volume that is traded daily in the Forex. It is also estimated that this volume will increase by 25% annually, which also makes it the fastest growing market.

Liquidity Forex market is one of the advantages that differentiates it from other international markets. The existence of the Dealers (Negotiators), working around the world, gives us a market operating 24 hours a day, making it possible to enter or exit the market at any time of day. In addition, operating through the Internet, orders purchase or sale may be executed in seconds, at any time of day.

Unlike other financial markets and exchanges, the Forex market is not a centralized market. Is negotiated directly by Banks, Dealers and Market Makers and Market Makers. Until recently, the Electronic Market Currencies SPOT was exclusively operated by large Government or Private Banking and Financial Institutions. For a trader (Forex Trading) individual was very difficult to get into this market because of the magnitude of capital required to operate it. Today, thanks to dealers "online" a trader willing to invest a minimum of U.S. $ 10,000 .- can quickly access the Forex. With the system of leverage or leverage, a trader may operate a U.S. $ 100,000 .- with only $ 1,000 of equity.

The Forex is traded primarily with speculative trading purposes. Operators or traders try to anticipate the movements of the currency market with the aim of making a profit on each trade transaction. It is estimated that 95% of all Forex transactions are done for speculative purposes.

In the world there yet hundreds of currencies traded in Forex four major currencies, the Yen, Euro, Pound Sterling and Swiss Franc others these quoted against the U.S. Dollar. Many people are interested in operating in the Forex market for its international news, as currency movements represent changes in the economies of each country regarding others. Market volatility also makes investing in it is very interesting, because the market can move sharply as a result of leveraged transactions and may achieve significant gains in a single day. Anyway and can make big profits in a few hours, you can also suffer significant losses at the same time.

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Forex Trading Course

is very important in our times to be informed, and above all to be informed through the right sources and that these days there are many sources of information that is difficult to distinguish to be reliable.

Having a reliable source of information is very important to be trained in the issues and technologies today, such as energy solar, qe ever has a greater presence in our daily lives and is essential to know how it works and we can do with it to save money and energíay to save our planet from global warming due to carbon emissions

It would be ideal to take a course appropriate solar energy from a reliable source and truthful and torque to implement solar energy in our lives .

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Solar PV SOLAR POWER interesting pages in English

Lae, is a type of solar energy based on the application of photovoltaic effect that occurs when light strikes semiconductor materials, so as to generate a flow of electrons inside the material. Applications

of great interest to cover consumption in isolated places. Photovoltaic solar energy is used commercially for power generation at the site of application, covering small loads. Not giving foreign supplies (fuel) or other types of resources (water, wind ...), applies in places that are inaccessible to the distribution network. Solar

PV

off-grid applications grid-connected applications

· photoelectric central rural electrification ELECTRICAL

· Applications building integrated livestock farming

· Pumping

· Telecommunications

· independent lighting

· ; Signage

Operating Principles

The applications of solar PV is based on the use of photovoltaic effect, this, is produced by solar radiation impact on a material called a semiconductor. Received energy causes a chaotic motion of electrons. If two regions of a semiconductor, which has been artificially endowed with different concentrations of electrons (adding doping substances such as phosphorus and boron), it causes a constant electrostatic field to be renewed the motion of electrons in the direction and desired direction, so when incident solar radiation, appears in the photovoltaic solar cell voltage that by placing metal contacts can be "removed" electricity. The face of the cell on the incident radiation has a grid that allows the passage of light and current draw simultaneously, and the other face is covered with metal.

Most Solar cells are mono or poly crystalline silicon, the former being more efficient.

Within the technical aspects should be mentioned concentration systems that will achieve higher efficiency levels. These concentrating systems can be:

· Static-free solar tracking using refractive media.

· Dynamic-tracked to allow concentrate solar radiation reflection.

A photovoltaic system consists of:

· Sub-catchment transform sunlight into electricity .

· Subsystem storage-store energy.

· Sub-regulation regulates the power input from the catchment area.

· Subsystem Power-appropriate adaptation characteristics energíaa demands for applications.

solar collector subsystem

radiation values change throughout the day, so it is important to the proper placement of the panels. His guidance will be provided to the south although the inclination of the panels will vary depending on the month of the year in which we are, because the sun will affect the earth with a different angle;

· 60 degrees in the winter months

· 15 º in the summer months.

To improve the performance of the collection system can be fitted with movement to support the installation may be a move on:

· ; A north-south axis-tracking

· Two-axis vertical east-west track.

To take advantage of sunlight.

accumulation subsystem

The PV is customary to use batteries to store power generated for later use in times of low or no sunlight .

adaptation Subsystems Current

In certain applications that work in DC can not match the voltage supplied to the elements requested by the consumer, so the solution is a voltage converter. In other cases, the application includes elements that work in AC, since both panels and batteries, work requires a DC power inverter. Applications

· facilities off-grid electrification

home. Regarding the design criteria There are two types of facilities:

· -Centered a single generator feeds all consumers in a group.

· Decentralized-each home is powered by a photovoltaic generator independently.

also depend on the type of power to use and benefit installation. Such facilities tend to be domestic, so it is advisable to remember that the energy consumed is not unlimited, and that to make the energy harvesting system is preferable to match the largest energy use with more sunshine hours.

· networked facilities.

can be found two cases:

· photoelectric or power stations, for the production of electricity.

· PV systems in buildings.

In these facilities, "networked" no elements of accumulation of energy produced as it can use the energy from the grid to meet the demand not covered by the photovoltaic .

Advantages of its use

· has a high quality energy

· is inexhaustible on a human scale

· Small or no environmental space use

· not add CO2 to the atmosphere and thus avoid the process of global warming as a result of greenhouse

· not contribute to the formation of acid rain

· not lead to the formation of Nox

· not require sophisticated security measures

· not produce toxic waste are difficult or impossible to treatment or disposal

Disadvantages

· The plant cost is quite high and the energy conversion efficiency is low

· The nonuniform solar radiation limits the possibility of harnessing this energíaa areas and countries with a high number of sunshine hours

· large area of land occupied by facilities

· a considerable environmental impact while significantly changes the ecosystem of the area in production

· No can be stored directly, being necessary energy transformation

· high initial disbursement

· results is doubtful and may still be somewhat experimental.